Introduction
The problems associated with forest protection and the preservation of biological diversity in Estonia are much broader than the question of the protection of the white-backed woodpecker. This study is an example demonstrating the existence and acuteness of such problems. The case of the white-backed woodpecker is a perfect example for this purpose since:
a) it serves as a good indicator species for assessing the condition of forests;
b) as a category II protected species according to the Estonian law on the protection of nature objects it provides a good opportunity strengthen the protection policy of forest communities.
c) it is a well publicised example demonstrating the deterioration of Scandinavian forestry and is, as such, a species ideally suited for the regulation of the activities of the predominantly Nordic companies operating in Estonia;
d) as a category I protected species under the EU bird directive it provides a good opportunity for the co-ordination of international protection.
This report, prepared in co-operation with the Swedish Nature Protection Society, gives an overview of the biology of the species, of the detection of its habitats and possibilities for its protection. The fieldwork in Tartumaa and Jõgevamaa counties to determine the habitats and evaluate the populations of the white-backed woodpecker provided useful experience and an overview of the condition of the species.
Despite a quite optimistic preliminary assessment, in the course of the study it became apparent that the white-backed woodpecker population in Estonia is threatened, mainly as a result of excessive felling and outdated forestry theories. As a result of this it was decided to include an outline of an action-plan plan proposal for a protection programme for the protection of the white-backed woodpecker and its habitats at the end of this report. The programme consists of various proposals for improving increasing the protection of the species. Some of them will inevitably need to be used in the coming years. It is the choice and description of these measures that is hoped to be discussed before the completion finalisation of this report.
The authors wish to thank their Estonian and Swedish colleagues - ornithologists, foresters, biologists, geographers and environmentalists, for their help and advice.
1. Biology (compiled by Jaanus Elts)
1.1. Distribution
The white-backed woodpecker has a trans-palaeoartic distribution from Norway in the West to Siberia, China and Japan in the East. In Europe the species is distributed as isolated populations in mountainous habitats around the Pyrenees and Alps. The species is occasionally found in Italy, South Germany and on the Balkan peninsula. The largest continental population is probably located in eastern Poland. White-backed woodpecker populations are generally static, nevertheless, invasion-like movements, the extent and causes of which are still unknown, do take place. Notable invasions coincide with those of the Great Spotted Woodpecker. Dispersal outside the nesting season is probably governed by the availability of food.
1.2. Feeding locations
Tree species used for (feeding) gathering food are primarily birch, willow, aspen, alder and oak. In winter dead, dying and living trees are used with roughly the same frequency. During nesting and in the subsequent period dead or living trees are mostly preferred; half dead or dying trees are used relatively less frequently. The trunk of the tree is the most frequently used feeding location, usually at a height of 4-6 m. The principal feeding technique is bark pecking. In winter, feeding burrows (deep chiselled channels in the wood) are made more often. Forests with a majority of deciduous trees and plenty of wood dwelling inhabiting insects are mostly used as feeding biotopes habitats.
1.3. Sexual dimorphism in feeding biology
Sexual dimorphism in the white-backed woodpecker is expressed in the longer beak and larger body weight of the male. Sexual dimorphism occasions gives rise to a number of differences in (feeding habits) the use of food resources. Thus, male birds feed on larger trees and on thicker branches. Male birds also feed on live trees more often and the channels they chisel are deeper than those of female birds. The beak dimorphism of of the white-backed woodpecker is thought to be an adaptation which ensures enables different food niches to be accessed used by the different genders male and female birds individuals.
Differences can also be observed in the tree species preferred by males and females. Female birds prefer birch throughout the year while males mainly choose willow. Only during the nesting season do males concentrate mostly on aspen. Adult birds feed in different parts of their nest territory. In winter white-backed woodpecker are often nomads especially in Russia and Siberia.
1.4. Nesting biology
1.4.1. Nesting habitat biotope
In Poland the main nesting habitat of the white-backed woodpecker is deciduous forest, marshy areas are preferred in particular. The nesting site is relatively open and is often near a lake or pond. In Finland 62% of nesting sites were found near bodies of water. Preferred locations are the paludified banks of lakes; bog margins should also be suitable. Both old forest as well as younger forest stands are used as nesting habitats, sometimes nests can be found in the single trees left standing in clear-cut sites.
1.4.2. Nest location
A new nest passage is generally made every year, only 1% of white-backed woodpeckers use the same nest passage in two consecutive years two years in a row. The nest passage is usually made in a tree trunk, which is already somewhat decayed (wood density less than 400 kg/m3). Many nest trees or stumps are, however, so rotten that they topple over at the end of the nesting season or even during the nesting season in storms. Nest passages are made most often in aspen, birch and alder trees. In central Europe the most popular nest tree species are Acer montanus, Fagus silvatica, Abies alba and Fraxinus exelcior. A study in Finland, however, found the main nest trees there to be birch - 47%, aspen - 32% and grey alder - 18% (n=34). In Sweden nesting preferences were a little different again: aspen - 45%, birch - 28%, grey alder - 17% (n=152). The nest is preferably sited in the region of the tree crown. Recorded nest heights were, in Sweden 6.9±2.7 m, in Finland 4 - 10 m, in Norway 1.8 - 7 m, in southern Germany 1.5 - 14 m, and in the Leningrad district 2 - 6 m.
1.4.3 Nesting territory
The territory depends essentially is strongly dependant on the characteristics of the habitat. In Spain the area of one isolated nesting territory was 9.6 ha. However, due to the low density of their populations their low density scarcity the areas of nesting territories are somewhat difficult to judge. In Finland white-backed woodpeckers feed up to 1.3 km away from their nests; the size of the territory was judged to be around 2km2 (excluding arable land). In eastern Germany 4 pairs were counted per km2, in Austria 0.7 - 2 pairs/ km2. The nesting territory is selected by the male bird in spring and the same territory is retained for several years. A new nest passage is, however, made each year.
1.4.4. Nesting phenology
The nesting season of the white-backed woodpecker begins relatively early, essentially earlier, for instance, than that of the Great Spotted woodpecker. The territorial hammering of the male bird begin, for instance, at the end of March in the Leningrad district. The first eggs are laid at the end of April in Norway, at the beginning of May in Finland, at the end of April in the European regions of Russia. One clutch is laid per season. Hatching takes 10 - 11 days. Fledglings are capable of flight at the age of 24 - 28 days.
In Sweden, for instance, 70% of fledgling flew the nest between May 20th and June 10th (n=87) and by the 20th of June 86% of the fledglings were capable of flight. In Eastern Poland 90% of fledglings leave the nest between the 20th of May and the 10th of June. In southern Germany the first fledglings start to leave the nest in the middle of May.
1.5. Food
Feeds mainly on the larvae of beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae, Lymexylidae, Elateridae, Buprestidae, Scarabaeidae, Cerambycidae, Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae, Scolytidae), the larvae and pupae of butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae, Geometridae, Cossidae, Plutellidae) and occasionally, outside the nesting period, on berries and nuts. While feeding is more apt to excavate deep burrows than pick insects from cracks in the bark. These feeding burrows are made quite rapidly in rotten wood to a depth which still permits the bird to view its surroundings (about 23 cm). Deeper burrows can not be excavated so rapidly for the simple reason that the bird can no longer see its surroundings and must for the sake of safety frequently peep out of the feeding burrow. Birds may feed in one spot for up to half an hour. They may visit the same strongly decayed tree day after day until it is cleared of insects.
1.6. Varia
During the nesting period the male bird often spends the night with the chicks in the nest burrow. The birds rest from about half an hour before sunset until sunrise. Outside the nesting period birds also sleep in hollows, sometimes in the nest burrow, rarely is a special sleeping burrow made.
2. Recommendations for locating potential habitats (compiled by Jaanus Elts)
2.1. Working from survey descriptions
From the above brief description of the biology of the white-backed woodpecker it is evident that attempts to locate suitable habitats for this species on the basis of survey descriptions is quite difficult. Nevertheless, I can still describe a list of factors here, which are worth considering when reviewing survey descriptions. These factors are presented as independent postulates together with short commentaries.
1. Forest type. Although the species can be found in both pure coniferous forest and mixed forest, its main home all year round is in deciduous forest. Since it is not possible or necessary to catalogue all the territories inhabited by the species, we should concentrate on the habitats in which we are most likely to find the species: deciduous forests dominated by birch, common alder and aspen whose age might be over 60 years old. The question of the importance of grey alder for the white-backed woodpecker in Estonia is still a matter of contention and evidently requires greater attention. Stands dominated by spruce but with large proportions of aspen, birch and common alder (not forgetting grey alder) as secondary species may also be of interest.
2. Age of stands. The white-backed woodpecker prefers strongly decayed trees both for nesting and feeding. Therefore, the investigated stand must be of an age which ensures the existence of large enough numbers of sufficiently large dead and dying trees. Deciduous trees reach a suitable size after about 40 - 50 years. Therefore stands with deciduous trees dominating should be reviewed from age class VI upwards and spruce dominated stands from age class IV.
3. Sanitary felling in the stands. It is more likely to find the white-backed woodpecker in stands where no sanitary felling has been carried out during the previous 10 years. Otherwise it is unlikely that there will be a sufficient number of decaying trees for the white-backed woodpecker in the stand. If stands which have been left untouched for even longer so much the better for the white-backed woodpecker.
4. Stand valuation score. The valuation score of a stand reflects the quality of its site and a low score is often the result of excessive moisture, lack of moisture, the low nutrient content of the soil, the physical properties of the soil. Therefore, there is also a greater chance of finding feeding trees suitable for the white-backed woodpecker in forests of a low valuation score. According to E. Leibak, however, some of the broad-leaved stands suitable for the species are also of class I and II quality. He recommends instead that more attention should be paid to habitat types SJ, ND, AN, OS, LD and perhaps to MDS and SS and to their drained counterparts (KSJ, KAN, etc.).
5. Stand density. The white-backed woodpecker prefers habitats with a density of less than 0.7. If all the other parameters fit it is also worth investigating sparse stands (a density of only 0.2 - 0.3).
6. Stand canopy density. In forest biology, canopy density and crown coverage are essential indicators, which largely determine growth conditions on the forest floor. Canopy density primarily determines light conditions as well as the amount of precipitation reaching the ground, air and soil temperatures, air movements in the stand, etc. These are all factors which effect the conditions necessary for the development of the insect population, the main food source of the white-backed woodpecker. The most suitable stands for the white-backed woodpecker should be ones with a low canopy density (up to 0.5).
2.2. Working with cartographic material.
Survey description data will probably yield quite a large number of stands (units) in which white-backed woodpeckers will potentially be found. It is worth initially selecting areas to be checked from cartographic material on the basis of the following postulates.
1. Stand position in relation to bodies of water. The white-backed woodpecker prefers habitats which border on a body of water. The most suitable in our natural landscape are low banked lakes and slow moving stretches of rivers. It is easy enough to find such areas on 1:50 000 scale topographic maps. Since such areas are generally over wet, they have often not been subject to any substantial maintenance which is, of course, a boon for the woodpecker. Attention should also be paid to bog margins.
2. Stand position in relation to the road network. Generally, in addition to all the other conditions described, the likelihood of finding a white-backed woodpecker habitat is positively correlated with distance from major roads. It is certain that the areas closer to settlements and roads are much more intensively managed than those in isolated places. True, the latter fall victim, much more often, to illegal felling, but since unofficial felling is usually of a random and carelessly nature this also increases the diversity of the stand by creating irregular clearings and sparse patches which the woodpeckers like.
Nevertheless, a word of warning here, often outlying areas appear very attractive from the survey descriptions, but in reality, the descriptions frequently do not correspond to actual natural conditions in the forest. Personal experience has shown that the descriptions of outlying stands may be totally incorrect, and even species compositions may be completely different (the surveyor has not bothered to visit the area himself and has based his description on information given by local foresters.
3. Planning of field-work (compiled by Rein Ahas)
The search for possible white-backed woodpecker habitats in forest management databases was carried out initially in Tartumaa and Jõgevamaa counties. The databases comprise mainly of state forests but a few managed private and collective farm forests were also reviewed. The following criteria were used for the first search:
| Main species of tree | KS, HB, LM, KU | |
| Age | >= 50 years | |
| Vegetation type | SJ, ND, AN, OS, LD, MDS, SS, KSJ, KAN | |
| Valuation score | Ia ... IV | |
| Density | <= 5 (0.5) | |
| Composition coefficient | <= 7, except KU<= 5 |
In the initial search dead and fallen timber properties were also used. However, due to the fragmentary nature of this data (field work in Järvselja revealed that the descriptions given did not reflect the actual situation) it was decided to discard this criteria. The results of the search were received as tables describing potential communities (table 1).
Table 1. Example of database search results
| Forestry district | Section | Plot | PE | Age | KKT | Quality | Composition coefficient |
Usually before visiting an area various local experts (forestry officials, scientists, interested parties) were consulted in order to define additional localities of interest. Often interesting patches of forest had already been felled and many localities were not represented in the forest management database (especially outside state forest land).
During field work the occurrence of birds in forests of very different densities was observed. The nature of the luring method used also caused confusion since this was carried out in one particular location and the actual locations of the birds’ habitats remained undefined. For these reasons we recommended that a relatively simple set of search criteria be used and that more precise assessment and selection of stands be carried out on the spot during the field work. In the current work the following search criteria were used for finding potential stands in Estonia.
| Main species of tree | KS, HB, LM, KU | |
| Age | >= 50 years | |
| KKT | SJ, ND, AN, OS, LD, MDS, SS, KSJ, KAN | |
| Quality class | Ia ... IV | |
| Composition coefficient | KU<= 5 |
4. Results of field work in Tartumaa and Jõgevamaa counties (compiled by Rein Ahas)
4.1. Organisation of field work
Field work was carried out by five different teams:
Rein Ahas
Erik-Gunnar Ahas
Jaanus Elts
Taavi Pae
Lauri Kulpsoo
Tartu University students and volunteers also participated in the work. In preparation for the field work trial observations were organised in Järvselja (24.04). Different communities were observed, work with data and maps was practised as well as the identification of woodpeckers (including their sex).
Field equipment for observers: field glasses, tape recorder, stop watch, identification guide, camera, forest management map, database search results, observation log pages, etc.
White-backed woodpecker observations
|
Name of observer: Date: time: length of luring: Forestry district (Commune, farm): section: plot: Additional description of location: Community: White-backed woodpecker: Other woodpeckers: Notes: |
Time of day for observations
A period of four hours following sunrise was mainly preferred. It became evident at the Järvselja field camp that after mid-morning (roughly 4 hours after sun-rise) the white-backed woodpecker no longer responded so actively to luring. Attempts to lure in the evening did not meet with success either.
Luring: 10 to 30 minutes of white-backed woodpecker rapping sounds, recorded in central Sweden in 1975, were played on the tape recorder. The recording was of the rapping of a male bird at the beginning of March. Pauses of 1 to 3 minutes were made in order to locate woodpeckers rapping in reply. Minimum distance between luring sites was 2-3 km.
Possible dangers and ethical considerations of luring
It is the opinion of Swedish specialists that short-term luring and observation of birds does not cause them any direct harm and doe not frighten them. Long-term observations, including observations of the nesting area, are nevertheless not recommended. Previous work in Sweden has shown that luring disturbs lone nesting pairs the most. The ethical aspects of luring have so far not received much attention. It depends to a large extent on the personal views of the observer, the objectives of the activity and the attitudes prevailing in the society at large.
Region for field work: Most of the field work was carried out in Tartu and Jõgeva counties. A few lurings were also carried out in interesting forests bordering on these areas in Põlva, Vijandi and Valga counties. More detailed investigations were carried out at the Järvselja forestry district.
The following areas were under particular scrutiny:
1. Areas bordering on Järvselja: Ahja river region and the areas bordering Lämmijärve lake in the Meeksi forestry district.
2. Forests in Koosa, Alatskivi and Vara
3. Forests in Kärkna, Vorbuse and Ilmatsalu
4. Forests in Kambja, Maaritsa and Pangodi
5. Forests in Meleski
6. Forests in Kaarepere and Pajusi
4.2. Weather conditions and phenological development
Field work was carried out in April-May 1998, mainly during the last 10days of April and the first 20 days of May. Warm and sunny weather during the whole observation period brought about the relatively rapid seasonal development of nature throughout the period. This also effected the execution of field work: in connection with the coming into leaf of the trees observations were concluded in the middle of May.
4.2.1. Weather conditions
Data from the Tõravere weather station for the observation period.
April 3.dec
temp. 13.8 max. 24.7 (29.04) min. 3.4 (21.04) precip. 3.8 mm
May 1.dec
temp. 13.0 max. 24.2 (1.05) min. 4.2 (07.05) precip. 22.4 mm
May 2.dec
temp. 12.6 max. 23.5 (18.05) min. -0.4 14.05 precip. 8.3 mm
The end of April was very warm, there was a minimal amount of precipitation. The first decade of May was very warm with occasional heavy downpours. The second decade of May was a little colder and drier. The whole observation period was significantly warmer and relatively dry compared to the average for this period over many years.
4.2.2. The phenological development of nature (data from Järvselja)
Warm and sunny weather resulted in the rapid seasonal development of nature at the end of April and the beginning of May. The phenological phases at the end of April and beginning of May began 6 to 10 days earlier than the long-term average over the last 30 years. In the middle of May phenological development stabilised.
Beginning of flowering of the maple: 29.04
Birch leaf bud opening: 30.04
Beginning of flowering of the bird cherry: 04.05
Mountain ash leaf bud opening: 04.05
Birch leaf formation: 05.05
Aspen leaf bud opening: 07.05
On 12.05 most trees in the forest were in leaf, the leaf buds of oaks had burst and lime buds were opening. Beginning of flowering of the mountain ash: 19.05 Oak leaf formation and apple trees begin to blossom: 20.05
4.3. Field work results
4.3.1 Investigated white-backed woodpecker habitats.
All together luring was carried out 169 times in the period between 23.04.98 and 14.05.98, and the presence of white-backed woodpeckers was recorded on 20 occasions. In the cases of some lurings which were executed close to each other the same birds were probably sighted. During luring only the identification of birds was carried out and no attempt was made to discover the more precise location of their nesting place. Therefore, the home plot number for each bird in the observation log represents estimation by the observer. The actual nesting site may be further and the whole territory wider. A more accurate definition of habitat may be undertaken as a separate field-work project but until then the search criteria for the birds’ habitat will remain relatively simple.
The results of successful luring events are presented in table 2. together with a description of the vegetation type in each case. Stands over 50 years old with birch and aspen dominating were recorded most frequently. On a few occasions forest communities with dominating black alder and spruce were also recorded. Forest density was relatively high in the locations described, generally 0.6 - 0.9. Of site types, the ground elder, meadowsweet, swamp forest and fen types dominated. Generally white-backed woodpecker habitats were characterised by the presence of larger forest tended to be a part of larger forest areas and were characterised by the presence of an abundance of old aspen trees.
The occurrence of two nesting pairs of white-backed woodpeckers in Tartu demonstrates the diverse distribution of the species. Whether the woodpeckers have moved here due to the lack of suitable natural habitats, or whether this is a usual occurrence, is unclear. Luring in cultural landscapes in the eastern part of the Otepää highlands and in the communes of Mäksa and Võnnu did not produce any sightings. On the basis of recorded data and visual evidence there were plenty of potential habitats here. Nor were any white-backed woodpeckers found in the relatively old (over 50years) fen and drained peatland birch forests of the Emajõe-Suursoo mire. There were plenty of potential habitats on the mire margins.
4.3.2.Detailed investigations in the Järvselja district
The Järvselja district was chosen for more detailed investigations for practical reasons. A good knowledge of the district and the permanent residence of an observer in the area provided an opportunity to build up a good overview of the population there. White-backed woodpecker were observed in seven different locations. Most of them were associated with aspen dominated stands and were located in areas containing plenty of old aspen trees. A more precise nesting site was defined in one case - stand (8HB(55yrs)+2KS) was relatively well defined and segregated from the rest of the landscape.
Initial experiences from the Järvselja study showed that the distribution of birds does not depend only on the availability of suitable habitats. The drawing of conclusions is hampered by the lack of research into the white-backed woodpecker in Estonia. Nevertheless, on the basis of a relatively good overview, it may be supposed that some very good potential habitats in Järvselja are uninhabited. The local distribution and choice of habitat of the birds is, no doubt, affected by other factors of which the authors of this study are not aware.
According to estimates up to 10 pairs of white-backed woodpeckers nest in the Järvselja district, since only a few suitable areas (mainly in the western part of the forestry station) were not investigated. This would mean 6 - 10 pairs of nesting birds in an area of around 6000 ha of forest. At the same time, on the basis of the field work, it can be assumed that the conditions in Järvselja are relatively advantageous for these birds: large tracts of forest, a large proportion of birch stands (up to 47%) and plenty of marshy areas. Despite extensive felling activities in the area (it is estimated that half of the forests which were potential habitats have been destroyed) Järvselja is an area with a relatively high population of white-backed woodpeckers. Nevertheless, it is evidently too early to extend the population density values in Järvselja to larger areas.
4.3.3. Observations and experiences of field workers during luring. The most fruitful time of day was the early morning (Table 2), up to four hours after sunrise. The success rate later in the day was especially low on warm days when trees were already in leaf. On colder and wetter days the birds were more active. white-backed woodpeckers arrived at the luring site within 3 to 10 minutes. Only on a few occasions did they arrive up to 30 minutes later.
Of lone individuals, male birds arrived on 5 occasions and females on 8. Male birds behaved more aggressively and often circled around the luring site in the trees for a long time. Female birds were more reserved and remained in the canopy. In the late morning (after 10 am) birds arrived only for a moment and then left again.
Pairs of birds arrived quite quickly (up to 10 minutes); on one occasion two pairs arrived immediately. Elements of courtship could be detected in their behaviour. White-backed woodpeckers answered with rapping relatively rarely. Aggressive birds who arrived answered nervously with a "click". Later in the morning nervous birds also answered the recording by rapping.
4.3.4. Reactions of other birds
Other woodpeckers reacted to the recording differently. The black woodpecker replied vocally and then left the area. Often its warning cry was heard from time to time in the distance (0.5km). The Great Spotted Woodpecker (especially the male) usually arrived for a short period at the luring site and later was heard rapping a little further away. The Great Spotted Woodpecker responded most actively to the recording.
The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker usually arrived slowly and left relatively quickly. The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker often rapped in reply but did not come closer. When approaching the bird the duet can become quite nervous and fast. The Three-toed Woodpecker appeared at luring sites on two occasions. It behaved quite calmly climbing around low down on the trunks of surrounding trees and did not leave at all. The Grey-headed Woodpecker reacted on two occasions, paying brief visits and leaving decisively.
Among other bird species the most active responders were the blue tit, marsh tit and great tit. The tits arrived in the luring area and replied nervously, short attempts at singing were made. The blackbird, missel thrush and starling also responded. The starling behaved quite nervously and darted from tree to tree.
5. Assessment of suitable habitats (compiled by Rein Ahas)
Work with the database and initial field observations gave a first estimate of the habitat and distribution of the white-backed woodpecker:
1) the species is more widespread in areas with large forest tracts dominated by deciduous species;
2) aspen and birch dominated old (over 50 years) forests are suitable as primary search criteria;
3) on the basis of the järvselja example the population density within large tracts of forest is roughly one pair per 1000 ha.
Table 3 shows the number of potential stands per county according to principal tree species. Of the counties Pärnumaa, Ida-Virumaa, Tartumaa, Jõgevamaa and Viljandimaa are most strongly represented (Fig 2). At the same time, only state forest databases were included, data on private forests is presently still very patchy.
Table 1. The area of stands containing habitats suitable for white-backed woodpecker in state forests according to dominating tree species.
The total area of stands suitable as habitats for the white-backed woodpecker according to the dominating tree species.
| Country | Total | Birch | Spruce | Aspen | Common alder |
Estonian state owned forests
Search criteria
| Main species of tree | KS, HB, LM, KU | |
| Age | >= 50 years | |
| KKT | SJ, ND, AN, OS, LD, MDS, SS, KSJ, KAN | |
| Quality class | Ia ... IV | |
| Composition coefficient | KU<= 5 |
The search criteria were refined according to the results of field work and are relatively loose. Actual work with this data base requires that the data for each forestry district be viewed separately and in conjunction with information from forestry specialists. Field work experience is presently limited to the counties of Tartumaa and Jõgevamaa. When surveying West and North Estonia and the islands, we will certainly have to consider different site types and selection criteria. For instance, broad-leaved forests in shore areas need to be considered separately. Appendix 1 contains figures showing the distribution of potential habitats according to tree species.
5.1. Estimates of the numbers of white-backed woodpeckers in Estonia.
Literature sources
The book " Birds of Estonia: Status, Distribution and Numbers" (Leibak, 1994) quotes a population size of 500 - 1000 pairs.
Field work in Tartumaa county and Järvselja.
On the basis of the field work we estimate the size of the population in Tartumaa county to be 30 - 50 pairs.
6. Activities threatening the white-backed woodpecker population (compiled by Rein Ahas)
Threats to the white-backed woodpecker population can most often be linked to the intensity of forestry and forest utilisation activities. Suitable old deciduous dominated stands are threatened by the cutting of pulp wood, over active management, the favouring of coniferous trees, a wrong attitude towards old trees and German style forest clearing-maintenance methods.
6.1. National policy
Ownership reform
The return of forests to private owners causes confusion in the organisation of forest management and leads to a general rise in logging volume. The proportion of privately owned forests and those set aside to be returned or privatised is close to 50% of all Estonian forests. These areas are estimated to contain up to 1/3 of the communities suitable for the species. There is practically no control over, or documentation (including a forestry database) of, these areas. Forest management plans are commissioned primarily for logging areas, illegal logging and forest raids are common. The condition of protected natural objects has generally not been ascertained.
National forest policy
The forest policy approved by the Estonian parliament contains both good and bad news for the white-backed woodpecker population. One of the positive aspects is the relatively progressive and favourable attitude of the Estonian Forestry Development Programme (EMAP) towards the protection of biological diversity. In fact, with the help of Scandinavian consultants, a new approach to the assessment of forest qualities has been achieved which should eventually take root in every-day Estonian forestry. Forest policy has also made essential advances in the cataloguing and registering of protected areas and valuable communities and in the development of a network of these areas. A recommendation has been made to increase the area of strictly protected forests by 4%. For this purpose the Forestry Development Programme has started a wide-reaching inventory and has begun the working out of a biological diversity strategy (EMAP, 1998). On the negative side, EMAP is too indulgent concerning the monitoring and regulation of private forestry, the permitted maximum annual felling quantity is over estimated and the whole forest policy favours the active management (felling) of forests.v The draft forest bill, which is still to be approved, is based primarily on the principles of the forest policy and is fundamentally relatively progressive. It is possible to direct and influence the forest policy and the direction of its evolution. One of the aims of the present report is also to find possibilities for stressing the importance of the condition of old deciduous forests and for organising their protection in Estonia.v Scandinavian forestry model
Estonia is becoming closely integrated with Europe and the Nordic countries. Their beliefs and principles are taking root in Estonian legislation, national policies and economic life. As a consequence there is an evident risk that Estonia will come under the influence of the so-called Scandinavian forestry model. This ideology is actively advocated by the large timber firms who represent the Nordic cellulose and paper industries. The annual turnover of these companies exceeds Estonia’s national budget and their economic-political influence is very strong both in Estonia and in their home countries. This creates a real danger that the destruction of forests and of biological diversity which has taken place in Scandinavia will, together with the respective management methods, be transferred to Estonia.
The main problems in Scandinavian forestry are the over utilisation of forests, the large proportion of plantations, the obvious preference of conifers and the destruction of deciduous forests due to the great demand for hardwood (paper industry). The same developments are occurring in Estonia. If a similar management model is applied in Estonia the white-backed woodpecker population here will be wiped out in 15 to 30 years.
6.2. Felling
During field work for this project it was discovered that 30% of the forests indicated in the database had already been felled. From the forest management plan it transpired that of the 20 locations where the white-backed woodpecker had been found 16 had been marked for clear-cutting. The remaining locations were situated in protective forest, in areas designated as habitats for category I protected species or in areas of little economic importance. Such a situation has developed due to the prevailing forestry management ideology in Estonia. The majority of white-backed woodpecker habitats in Tartumaa county are to be destroyed.
Clear-cutting
In deciduous forests clear cutting is the most common management method. Forest improvement felling is usually reserved for the maintenance of planted coniferous forests and the management of some forest types. Aspen is considered to reach felling maturity at the age of 50 years. The Estonian forestry system foresees their cutting from this age onwards, both in aspen dominated stands and in mixed forest communities. The felling of aspen stands is often postponed in state forests - the value of the timber is less than the cost of felling it. The felling must, nevertheless, be carried out during a certain period.
The age at which felling maturity is reached by birch and black alder depends on the quality class of the stand: Ia 60 years; I and II 70 years; III 80 years; IV and V 70 years. Final felling is preferred and since demand for black alder and birch is very high, felling is seldom postponed.
Selective felling
Selective felling is not usually carried out in aspen dominated stands. In recent years a welcome tendency has spread: in selective felling in mixed stands aspen are often left to grow due to their low value. This promotes the emergence of old trees.
In birch and alder stands large and healthy trees are preferred for felling and after maintenance or sanitary felling only smaller and weaker birch and fir trees are often left standing. Such unregulated felling is very dangerous particularly in private forests. Experience of sustainable management in deciduous stands is minimal in Estonia and this is one area which definitely needs to be emphasised in future forestry policy developments.
6.3 Major projects
Cellulose plant
The impact of the cellulose plant scheduled to be built in Estonia on the habitats of the white-backed woodpecker may be decisive. The building of such a plant in Estonia is probably justified, since the export of raw material is not the wisest way of using our natural resources. However, two aspects are of decisive importance: the production capacity and the production technology. So far industry planners have talked only of a major plant which would be capable of processing all the suitable raw material available in Estonia. This would intensify felling and communities would come under direct pressure. Smaller plants would be cheaper to build (the project is currently held up by the size of the required investment) and more environmentally friendly. As for raw material type, forestry specialists recommend hardwood-processing technology while many lumber firms suggest softwood-based technology. When building a plant using hardwood the proportion of aspen in the raw material should seriously be considered. At present the Finnish Metsaliitto cellulose plant uses a large proportion of Estonian aspen wood, Norwegian plants based on this technology also buy some aspen from Estonia. It is not at all certain whether there are sufficient aspen resources in Estonia to supply a local plant.
6.4 Direct human impact
The white-backed woodpecker is relatively insensitive to direct human influence. Swedish studies have shown that the birds live in the immediate vicinity of farms. The birds living in Tartu are further proof of this. At the same time large projects in their habitats still disturb the birds and such activities should first be approved by the respective specialists.
7. Economic assessment (compiled by Rein Ahas and Kuido Kartau)
The economic assessment of the survival and protection of the population is based on the assessment of the cost of restoration and consideration of the market situation. No essential indirect environmental economic assessment methods have actually been used in Estonia (Kartau 1998). In the Nordic countries such assessments have been made for the evaluation of different protection policies and methods. Rein Kuresoo writes in a newspaper article that the average Swede is prepared to spend 450 Swedish Krona per annum for the preservation of the white-backed woodpecker (Kuresoo 1996). It is not possile to achieve such figures in Estonia - the society is different and the white-backed woodpecker is still quite common. However, it is essential to give a certain overview of the financial aspects in order to be able to assess the costs associated with the destruction of the species.
7.1. The restoration cost method.
The restoration of a population, above all, requires time. In order to transform logged forest land into communities suitable for the white-backed woodpecker it is necessary to preserve and manage a sufficient area of forest over 50 years. In Sweden the government (Environmental Protection Agency and the Forestry Board) has set aside 1.2 million Swedish Krona per annum for the implementation of the national white-backed woodpecker population restoration programme (mainly the restoration of habitats). In addition to this, funding for research, restoration of populations and policy development is provided.
The Swedish Nature Protection Society in co-operation with The Environmental Protection Agency spends 550 000 SEK per annum on the habitat restoration and survey project. The Swedish timber company and forest owner STORA has prepared a plan for the restoration of 100 white-backed woodpecker habitats. The average size of each habitat area is 100 ha. The project will take 20 years and 3 million SEK per year to complete; this makes a total project budget of 60 million SEK. Many other environmental organisations, forest owners and timber companies spend millions of Krona on restoring this bird species in Sweden. Hopefully a similar situation will not develop in Estonia.
7.2. Assessing profit and loss
The deciduous forests suitable as habitats for the white-backed woodpecker are very diverse. The average timber volume per hectare of suitable birch and aspen stands is 250 m3. If we assume the average nesting territory to be 50 ha the unrealised profit could be calculated as follows (Ahas 1996):
Aspen stands: 250 m3 per ha x 50 equals 12 500 m3; average price of 1 m3 of aspen pulpwood (diameter under 50 cm) at the lumberyard is 150 Kroons; the value of the timber on an average nesting territory is hence 1.8 million Kroons. The saving factor for aspen stands is the low value and demand for this material. 150 Kroons hardly covers the cost of logging and the stumpage duty. Therefore, the sale of aspen logging areas is low. The main profit from logging aspen arises from the sale of logs suitable for sawing timber (for boxes, pallets, etc.). Older aspen stands do not yeild much of this type of material, which means that logging companies are interested in the lowering of the age at which aspen stands are considered to reach felling maturity (50 years). In the RMO system logging takes place obligatorily according to the logging schedule, often this logging is postponed. In the course of selective felling aspen are often left standing due to their low value, this increases the diversity of forests. Private forest owners log aspen for firewood and sale, but also to a small extent. The market situation is tense at the moment, there are usually up to two ship loads of aspen logs waiting at Estonian ports to be sold and exported to the Finnish Metsaliitto plant or to Norway. Since ordinary cellulose plants use up to 15% aspen together with birch, aspen is often a supplementary material to higher quality woods. Plants often offer to buy a certain percentage of aspen as an inducement.
The market situation for birch is much more lively. The price of birch pulp wood at the lumber yard is about 300 EEK per m3 which makes the value of a 50 ha area of birch forest about 3.7 million Kroons. Logging birch is profitable and the market is large. More valuable birch logs are particularly sought after. Birch logging areas are in demand both in state and in private forests, many birches are obtained from selective felling and from fir dominated stands. The birch forests on wetter ground are also directly threatened.
Black alder has a small market share. Firewood is sold for up to 100 EEK a m3 at the lumber yard, logs suitable for sawn timber is more expensive and more sought after. In conclusion black alder resources are small and the market relatively restricted.
In reality, the assessment of the value of unharvested lumber is complicated. Nesting territories consist of very diverse communities and have no precise boundaries. Logging is not carried out everywhere at the same time and many forests are in unfavourable locations. As a total estimate we could say that the communities suitable for 500 pairs of white-backed woodpeckers occupy an area of forest containing lumber with a value of up to one billion Kroons. Whether or not this is a large sum will depend on national environmental policy and foreign policy developments.
7.3. Compensation payments imposed by law.
According to the Government of the Republic Regulation No. 275 of the 25th of July 1995 "Establishment of the compensation rates for damage caused to natural flora and fauna and their implementation", the rate of compensation applied to the white-backed woodpecker is 1 500 Kroons. It is not possible to say whether this price reflects the actual extent of the harm done to the birds and their habitats.
8. Choice of protection measures (compiled by Rein Ahas)
The problems associated with forest protection and the preservation of biological diversity in Estonia are much broader than the question of the protection of the white-backed woodpecker alone. In addition to the laws, strategies, and projects outlined here, there are a wide range of other possibilities for improving and legislating for the protection of white-backed woodpecker habitats. It is not the objective of this work to describe all these possibilities. Instead we concentrate on the development of the species protection strategy in conjunction with various programmes. For this purpose, proposals for the definition of the scope of the protection strategy for the white-backed woodpecker have been outlined in the next chapter (9).
8.1. The law on protected objects of nature and its implementation. §1. The law on protected objects of nature establishes the procedure for awarding protected status to objects of nature requiring special protection, the nature of that protection and lays down defines the rights and obligations of land owners, land users and other individuals’ in respect to protected objects of nature.
§22 (1) Category II protected species, fossils, and minerals will be defined on the basis of this act according to the procedure established by the Government of the Republic. (3) To the extent that endangers the survival of the species in that location, it is forbidden to capture, keep, kill, threateningly disturb, pursue and trade in category II protected animals and to destroy or damage their breeding or other permanent habitats. (7) A nature protection area may be created to ensure the survival of the permanent habitat or location of a category II protected species, fossil, or mineral (Law on Protected Objects of Nature).
Government of the Republic regulation No. 462 of the 15th of December 1994.
Procedure for awarding protected status to objects of nature and the compilation of the lists of category II protected plant, fungi and animal species and fossils.
Category II animal species
white-backed woodpecker
Possible actions
1. Propose the creation of nature protection areas to protect white-backed woodpecker habitats in accordance with the procedure stipulated in law.
2. Make proposals to the Forest Management Centres to exclude white-backed woodpecker habitats from the logging plans.
3. An exemplary court case. Use the possibilities provided in law to call the national bodies breaking the law to order (the vast majority of white-backed woodpecker habitats are earmarked for clearance felling within the next 5 years in the logging schedule).
8.2. The forest act (Approved in Dec 1998)
§21. The fundamental rights and obligations of the owner in managing the forest
4) to manage the forest in a way which is in line with the principles of sustainable use and according to the requirements for the protection of objects of nature, species and habitats.
§26. The objectives of forest use
(1) The objectives of forest use are:
1) Conservation of objects of nature
§29. Use of the forest for protecting nature
Forests are used for preserving the habitats of protected species and objects of nature within the nature reserves of protected areas and the areas of special protection zones designated as not for commercial use or in areas given equal status to these.
§30. Key biotopes
(1) The term key biotope is used in this act to mean an area within a protective or managed forest where the likelihood of finding threatened, endangered or rare species is high ...
(3) The classification principles and guide to selecting key biotopes will be issued by the Minister of the Environment.
(4) The protection of a key biotope in forests not belonging to the state will be effected on the basis of an agreement drawn up between the Forest Agency and the forest owner ...
§40 Permitted forest usage in protected forests
(1) The permitted categories of forest usage in reserve forests are:
1) nature protection;
2) environmental protection;
3) scientific and educational work.
(2) The protection rules of a protected object of nature may permit some of the other categories of forest usage, described in §28 of this act, to be used in a protected forest.
Possible actions
1. The inclusion of the best of the old deciduous dominated forests suitable for the white-backed woodpecker in the key biotope list.
2. An inventory of private forests in order to determine key biotopes.
3. The automatic inclusion of white-backed woodpecker habitats in the reserve forest category according to the Nature Protection Act.
8.3. The EU bird directive and habitat directive
According to the bird directive the white-backed woodpecker is classified as a category I threatened species. This guarantees total protection for the species and its habitats (Council Directive 79/409/EEC). In the habitat directive protected alder stands are described under heading 44.3 of the list of forest communities; these coincide with the habitats of the white-backed woodpecker.
Possible actions In the so called "sieving process" of checking the compatibility of legislation in preparation for joining the EU, to automatically include the white-backed woodpecker and its habitats in the list of strictly protected areas. To use the government’s willingness to accept the demands made by Europe to find a compromise. To keep Brussels well informed with the help of international organisations.
8.4. Forest policy and the forest development programme
Paragraph 3.5, Forest management and protection of ecosystems, of the forest policy document approved by parliament (11.06.97), declares the need for the continuous, uniform but diverse use of forest resources. The proportion of strictly managed forests will be increased to at least 4% including increasing the area of protected primeval forests and reserves and by widening existing restricted zones. In addition an inventory will be carried out in order to assess the protection merit of forests and the criteria for establishing forest categories will be worked out. A relatively favourable climate has been created in the forestry policy for the definition of key biotopes and for providing protection for them and for the assessment of total protection merit. Of the research projects started in this field under the auspices of the forestry development programme the "Strategy for the preservation of biological diversity in commercial forests", "Sustainable forestry criteria" and "An inventory of nature protection areas" are particularly essential. The first of these studies has been completed (EFDP, 1998) and the others are nearing completion.
The "Strategy for the preservation of biological diversity in commercial forests" project deals with different aspects of forest management and protection. An integrated approach to the whole field of forestry is particularly essential for the protection of forests. This is also essential for the protection of the white-backed woodpecker.
Possible actions
1. Integration of white-backed woodpecker habitats into the forest policy programme to extend protected forests.
2.The inclusion of communities suitable for the white-backed woodpecker in the list of key biotopes.
3. The inclusion of the white-backed woodpecker on the list of indicator species, the incorporation of the respective ornithological studies within the surveys of reserve and ordinary forests.
4. The formulation and execution of sustainable management plans (non clear-cutting) for suitable deciduous forests (birch and aspen stands).
5. The advocation of natural renewal for forest restoration.
6. The regular provision of training and information concerning the possibilities for preserving white-backed woodpecker habitats for forestry workers and forest owners.
7. To also consider such protected species as the white-backed woodpecker when defining the criteria for ecological forestry.
8.5. Estonian environmental strategy
The environmental strategy approved by parliament specifies the direction that Estonian nature utilisation and environmental protection policy will take and the primary goals in these fields in the new political and economic situation up to the year 2000 and 2010. This is in fact a schedule of work for the ministry and a specification of the fundamental long-term financing principles. The list of priorities (10 in all) also includes the issue of biodiversity and landscape protection. The environmental strategy specifies the preservation of local species as vigorous populations as the main species protection goal. To do this, their habitats must be preserved through sensible and balanced human activity or by imposing suitable protection measures.
Possible actions
1. The inclusion of the white-backed woodpecker as an internationally important species onto the top priority list of species to be studied and protected.
Longer perspective (until 2002)
9.1 Assessment of the condition of the species.
* The classification of the white-backed woodpecker as an indicator species
* The in-depth study of the ecology of the white-backed woodpecker and an inventory of its habitats
* The determination of protection requirements
9.2 Protection of the white-backed woodpecker according to the category II protected species statute and the provisions of the forest act
* Nature protection areas, protected and protective forests
* Primeval forest programme
* Managed forests
* Private forests
* Other habitats
9.3. International co-ordination of protection for the white-backed woodpecker
* EU bird directive and habitat directive
* Forestry agreements
* International agreements
Shorter-term action plan (until 1999)
9.4 The creation of a white-backed woodpecker programme involving Estonian scientists and environmental organisations (within the Ornithological society?)
9.5 The integration of the protection programme for the white-backed woodpecker and its habitats into existing projects.
* The inclusion of the white-backed woodpecker biotope in the key biotope programme (EMAP)
* An inventory of white-backed woodpecker habitats within the survey of protected forests (EMAP)
* Consideration of white-backed woodpecker habitats and suitable communities during the formulation of protection rules (KKM)
* Inclusion of white-backed woodpecker protection in the timber and forest products certification programme (ERL, EMAP)
* Inclusion of the white-backed woodpecker in the life form biodiversity and landscape protection programme of the Environmental Strategy (NEAP)
9.6 Initiation of the Provision of training and information for forestry workers and forest owners programme.
* Work with forestry officials to provide protection for white-backed woodpecker habitats
* Work with forest owners interested in nature protection (an estimated 25%)
* Work with national and international timber companies (large potential!)
* The formulation of ecological and balanced forestry principles and methods
* The formulation of the principles for managing suitable stands as permanent forest areas.
Programme for 1998
* Completion of this report (ERL) - July 1998
* Printing and sending information to forestry officials and forest owners (ERL) - August-September 1998
* Initiation of the white-backed woodpecker programme (VSKRP?) (EOÜ) - September 1998
* Making proposals to the timber and forest products certification working group (VSKRP) - September 1998
* Making proposals for the exclusion of some of the habitats found during this project from felling schedules (VSKRP) - September 1998
* Making proposals for the reappraisal of felling maturity in aspen, birch and alder dominated stands (VSKRP) - October 1998
* If necessary the raising of the species protection issue (The bird directive, etc.) in negotiations with the EU (VSKRP) - autumn 1998